JAWAHARLAL
NEHRU 1951-1964
Challenges before Nehru-
to achieve massive reconstruction of polity and economy, advancement towards
basic objectives of democracy, civil liberties, secularism, a scientific and
international outlook, planning with socialism, to alleviate poverty and
unemployment, land reforms, consolidation of the nation, solutions of language
and tribal problem, form a new electoral policy and
independent foreign policy
How
he proceeded?
·
1951-1952 first general election held on
basis of universal adult franchise(21 or + age)
·
Some critics said a backward country
like India can only suited to benevolent dictatorship.
·
Election held according to directive
principles and independent election commission as also made.
·
Sukumar Sen was appointed as first chief
election commissioner.
·
People’s response to new political order
was tremendous.
·
Establishment of democratic institution
·
Press having free play even when it
criticized government severely.
·
Even court was independent when it
turned down legislation of agrarian reform.
·
Both ruling and opposition parties
played its role well in parliament.
·
Nehru put states and centre at cordial
terms hence he did not force states to effect land reform just to keep federalism
strong.(only president rule in Kerala in 1959 was exception)
·
But this tendency somehow harmed to the
subjects of health, education, agricultural in states.
·
Although Nehru at the same time made
centre strong and even it was easy to do this as ruling part was same in both
centre and states.
·
Nehru kept state’s supremacy over
military as he was worried with its coup in Pakistan France and Germany.(hence
low expenditure on it)
·
Nehru was critic of bureaucracy and ics
but gradually he understood the Patel and accepted the administration system.
·
This was also a time when evil of
corruption started in India.
·
His major achievement in field of
science. First national science laboratory and national physical laboratory was
laid on in 1947.
·
In 1952 first of five institute of
technology was set up on patterned of Massachusetts IT
·
India was country of the world to
recognize importance of nuclear energy in constructing measures hence set up a
ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION in 1948with HOMI J. BHABHA. Latter on separate deptt.
Was laid on.
·
Asia’s first nuclear reactor was set up
in trombay(Bombay)
·
In 1962 space research started by
setting up INDIAN NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR SPACE RESEARCH AND ROCKET LAUNCHING
FACILITY AT THUMBA.
·
Krishna menon as defence min. initiated
defence research.
·
Under the article 36 of DPSP welfare
policy is promoted on socialistic pattern of society.
·
This phrase was officially accepted by
congress session at avadi and latter on adopted in the objective of third five
year plan.
·
Land reforms, planned economy
development, rapid expansion of public sector, labor legislation, right to form
trade union , go on strike, security of employment, provision of health
insurance, distribution of wealth through progressive taxes, expansion of
education etc.
· Anti untouchability law in 1955,
reservation in education and employment for sc/st’s.
· 1951 Hindu code bill in favor of women
demands for right. However due to protest from jansangh and Hindu communal
sectors bill was passed in four separate parts in the second term of Nehru.
· Bill introduced monogamy, right of
divorce to both men and women, raised the age of consent and marriage and gave
right to maintenance and to inherit family property.
·
But a uniform civil code could not be
enacted (shah bano case)
·
In 1951 literacy was only 16.6%(6% in
rural)
· Vast efforts were done be government that
increased enrollment in primary secondary education in both girls and boys.
·
By 1964 total no of universities were
increased from 18 to 54.
·
But behind the success story major
weakness was decline in educational standards
· Target of free and compulsory education
was shifted from 1961 to 1966 and then to distant future.
· For rural uplift community development
and panchayati raj institution program was started in 1952 and 1959.(much
cooperated by U.S. during cold war)
·
Despite of good results it was suffered
with bureaucracy.(hence balwant rai committee in 1957)
·
On the recommendation from 1959 panchayati
raj was adopted as self governance in all over country trough three level
system
But cooperative movement and these programs could not
succeed according to expectation as it ignored the class division of Indian
society so major benefits were reached to only upper class.
FOREIGN POLICY OF
NEHRU
·
Nehru realized that India should speak
in her own voice on current situations.
·
Hence NAM came in row. At the same time India
neither joined Bagdad pact, manila treaty, SEATO, CENTO WHICH JOINED THE
COUNTRIES OF WEST AND EAST ASIA TO THE WESTERN power BLOC.
·
But NAM was not immoral neutrality it
was a freedom to decide what was right or wrong then take stand in favour of
right.
·
We helped Indonesia from Dutchcolonies
in 1948 then participated in Afro-Asian conference.
·
In 1961 Belgrade conference it supported
disarmament and peace
·
The major aim of our policy was to
promote interest of Indian economy hence we maintained good relation with both
U.S.(technology in green revolution) and SOVIET UNION(largest arm exporter).
·
Active membership in various UN body IMF
WORLD BANK etc and in peacekeeping force and in commonwealth institution.
LAL BAHADUR SASHTRI (1964 -1966)
·
After the death of Nehru there were two
main contenders for pm post. But shastri made it with the support of k.kamaraj,
the congress president.
·
Shastri was widely accepted in the party
as he was more amenable to their wishes and not challenge their leadership in
the party.
·
Shastri with his calm character did not
make any change in Nehru’s cabinet.(except Indira Gandhi, minister of
information and broadcasting)
·
Challenges - Problem
of official language of Hindi versus English flared up in 1965 nut due to
government incapability it finally solved in 1966. Demand of Punjabi Suba and
Goa’s merger with Maharashtra was allowed to simmer. Our economy was
stagnating. Slow rate growth of industry and b.o.p problem but major one is
food shortage.
·
C.M. of food surplus states denied helping
in food crisis situation. Even US suspended to import due to indo-Pakistan war.
·
Despite of creating State Food Trading
Corporation and statutory rationing, no result came. However strategy of green
revolution was come which fully implemented in Mrs. Gandhi’s period.
·
Shastri was criticized for his thin decision
power under pressure of cabinet.
·
But after some time shastri showed his
independence as government first criticized the US bombing of N. VIETNAM
·
He set his own pm’s secretary L.K. JHA
·
Real challenge came in 1965 during indo-Pakistan
war (Pakistan demanding for Kashmir)
·
In 1965 followers of Saikh Abdullah and
other dissident leaders created a great deal of unrest there(Pakistan thought
it was a right time even it was supported by US and India was not completely
come over after 1962 war)
·
However once war started Britain, US cut
off arms food and other supplies to both the countries and china called India
as aggressor but soviet union kept supporting India even in UN.
·
Under pressure of UN ceasefire was put
on. India recovered its pride and self confidence which was lost in 1962 war.
·
The good news was that infiltrators did
not get support of Kashmiri people. And secularism was maintained during war
(Muslim, Sikh, christens all fought against Pakistan army)
·
Shastri became national hero.
o
TASHKENT AGREEMENT-
In 1966 subsequent to the ceasefire agreement and under the good offices of the
Soviet Union Shastri and Pakistan president Ayub Khan met in here and signed
declaration acc to which both sides agreed to withdraw from all occupied areas
and return to their pre-war august positions. In the case of India it meant
withdrawing from strategic Haji Pir pass through which Pakistan infiltrators
could come again. Shastri had to agree this unfavorable terms to avoid war and
losing soviet support on Kashmiri issue in UN and in supply of defence
equipment especially MIG planes and heavy tanks.
o
Shastri got tragic heart attack in
Tashkent.
INDIRA GANDHI 1966-
1969.
·
After shastri death there was again Morarji Desai
as a pm contender but due to his unpopularity in party Kamrajar gave support to Mrs.
Gandhi thinking that young and inexperienced women would easy to dominate.
o
CHALLENGES – Punjab
was on boil, Naga issue and Mizo trouble, economy recession export and
industrial growth was declining, failed monsoon in year 1966, drought,
inflation, and famine in E.UP BIHAR, Pakistan-china axis led to sharp rise in
military expenditure, budget deficient growing and endangering of fourth five
year plan.
·
Demand of Punjabi Suba and Naga’s for
autonomy was accepted then successfully dealt with drought situation.
·
Under pressure of US (PL 480-import of
food grains) and IMF(aid stopped after indo-Pakistan war) she devalued rupee by
35.6% to increase export(although decision created criticism)
·
However decision was not proved to be
successful.
·
She remained silent on Vietnam issue in
world politics after being humiliated by US time to time in matter of its
export of wheat.
·
Her latter signed joint agreement with
soviet to end US bombing on Vietnam and not joined even Asian forum as it was
supported by US. Unfortunately she had to run away from US proposal of its
funding of indo-American educational foundation.
·
She developed links with Egypt and
Yugoslavia to strengthen NAM. Even she tried to have a dialogue with china but
not succeed.
·
She even faced agitation demonstration
student strike riots with a new feature of bandh of city due to increasing
disparity.
·
By taking it full advantage opposition
Jan Sangh left parties communist criticized government.(matter of banning beef
eating was put up by Jan Sangh but government stood firm against it)
·
Year 1966 saw beginning of downslide of
parliament(she was often called a ‘gungigudia’ by opposition leader Mr.Lohia)
·
Once after election of 1966 Mrs. Gandhi
reassumed as a pm(despite of people dissatisfaction with the congress they did
not have another option till now as opposition parties did not raise any social
agenda. their only aim was to defeat Mrs. Gandhi )
·
After this first time the role of rich
and middle peasant was increased in Indian politics which hated congress and
communist. They controlled the rural vote by their muscle and money power. They
wanted control over land. (In north UP BIHAR PUNJAB parties like BKD AKALI DAL
SSP were formed. However in south communist presence kept rural landowner tied
to congress)
·
This election also started era of
coalition government though CPM did not join this. Even congress did this in
some states. All these started defection in politics.
·
In spite of all Mrs. Gandhi emerged as
central power, she made Mr. Desai a deputy PM with a mere status.
·
Year 1969 congress moved towards split.
New phase of left over politics stated.
o
THE NAXALITES-CPM
originally was spilt from CPI in 1964 on ground of revolutionary politics and
reformist parliamentary politics. Usually CPM participated in parliamentary
politics and formed coalition government in WB with bangle congress, with JYOTI
BASU, the CPM leader. Soon one section of the party (young cadres inspired by
Chinese method) revolted against party leadership and its reformist attitude.
They were turned out of the party but they started their movement under
leadership of CHARU MAJUMDAR and formed CP-ML in 1969. They launched peasant
uprising in Naxalbari village. Thus they were called Naxalities.
INDIRA GANDHI
1969-1973
CHALLENGES-
slowing down of economy growth, domestic saving, rate of investment, US aid,
increasing black money, corruption, unrest among country middle class,
emergence of new action ‘gherao’. The Syndicate members were joined by Mr.
Desai. This team did not allow Mrs. Gandhi to appoint her member in working
committee.
·
She did calm and calculated reaction as
she did not want to jeopardize party unity.
·
Soon in 1967 she adopted 10 point
program-social control of banks,
nationalization of general insurance, state trading in import and export trade,
ceilings on urban property and income, curb on business monopolies and concentration
of economic power, public distribution of food grain, rapid implementations of
land reforms, provision of house sites to the rural poor and abolition of
princely purse.(although congress was leaned to vague radicalism but
after 1967 election there was tilt to left)
·
However the old right wing did not
accept it but she remained firmed.
·
She again went against her part for
making GIRI as president.
·
MRTP act 1969 to check concentration of
economic power.
·
By all her efforts she once again
initiated a climate of optimism.
·
Her ‘GARIBI HATAO’ was more powerful
than opposition ‘INDIRA HATAO’.
·
As a result in 1971 election she
restored party position.
CHALLENGE OF BANGLADESH- there
was Punjabi speaking Muslim living in West Pakistan and Bengali speaking Muslim
in EastPakistan. Soon WestPakistanacquired a dominant position in Pakistan’s
army, polity, bureaucracy, economy resulting discrimination in East Pakistan.
Moreover there was absence of political mechanism but gradually they got sense
of power of democracy that gave them majority of seats in Pakistan assembly
elections under leadership of Sheikh Mujibur Rehman of Awami League party. But Pakistan
general Yahya Khan backed Zulfiqar Bhutto of WestPakistan. Hence a West
Pakistan army initiated reign of terror. Rape killing burning of crops was
happened. Migration was stared from East Pakistan to Calcutta and formed Mukti
Vahini. Mrs. Gandhi knew that war any action against Pakistan could create bad
image for her in world politics but problem of migrated refugees was increasing
burden on India’s food stock and economy. Even if she took action she had to
wait for a right time as military operation could not be done in monsoon season
in East Pakistan and Himalayan passes would help Chinese aid to Pakistan. And
moreover mukti vahini was not well prepared till now even was being trained by Indian
army.
So for next four months she tried to gather a world
political support for her. US-CHINA stood against her in UN but she soon
declared indo-soviet peace friendship cooperation treaty for next 20 years.
On 3 December war was started from pakistan’s side
as Mrs. Gandhi wanted. And under leadership of general J.S. Arora we defeated pakistan
and Bangladesh was created and pakistan freed Mr.rahman who became PM of
Bangladesh on 1972.
·
In year 1972 having left-of-centre
agenda initially she did not proceed with further nationalization.
·
24th and 25th
amendment was done in 1971 (Gorakhnath case).
·
1974 pokhran test.
J.P. MOVEMENT AND EMERGENCY- by the beginning of 1973 her image started declining
as problem of inflation growth down etc again came in picture
Gujrat and Bihar having unrest due
to price hike in 1974. Even president rule was imposed there then fast of Mr.desai
led to dissolve of Gujrat assembly. Bihar movement was led by j.p.narayan. The
famous total revolution and party less government movement was started.
As the movement grew it attracted
non left parties students socialist traders middle class support from all over
country. But at the end of 1974 the movement got slow as it could not be
popular among rural and urban class.
On 12 June 1975 justice Sinha of
high court convicted Mrs. Gandhi for having indulged in corrupt campaign
practices and declared her election invalid. At the same time janta dal won in Gujarat
assembly election. Now J P and opposition parties made coalition and called for
nationwide one week campaign of mass mobilization and civil disobedience on 29 June.
And thus Mrs. Gandhi posed emergency on 26 June. (Although both J P and
Indira did not choose democratic way).
From mid 1976 people started
disillusioned with the emergency. In starting those control over black
marketing was now becoming slowed down and price hike was started. Press
censorship, power of policegiri was increasing. The twenty point agenda was
failed and sanjay Gandhi was becoming popular. And his four points of family
planning, pant tress, clearing sums, don’t take dowry was implemented with
cruelty. Congress also adopted sterilization agenda forcefully.
All these was becoming intolerable
for nation hence on 18 january 1977 Mrs. Gandhi announced election of loksabha
and emergency was removed.She got defeated. Janta dal came in power with Mr.desai
as a PM.
MORARJI DESAI1977-1979.
CHALLENGES- economic
situations, social justice, administration, communal violence etc
·
Failed in many challenges except its
rural employment program ‘food for work’.
·
Congress was split in 1978 a) congress
(I) and congress (U).
·
Congress(i) under indra got revival very
soon.
·
She again came in power in 1977. Old
jansangh leaders leaving janta dal form BJP.
INDRA GANDHI
1980-1984.
·
She immediately dissolved nine states
assemblies in opposition ruled states.
·
She succeeded in planning, foreign
policies (tilting to US), economic liberalization, and growth over 4%.
·
On 31th October 1984 she was
assassinated.
RAJIV GANDHI 1984-1989.
CHALLENGES- 1984
riots, Bhopal gas tragedy etc
·
He already showed his capability in 1982
Asian games.
·
With the support of his friend and
advisor on technology mission Mr. Sam Pitroda(set up C-DOT), he initiated his 6
technology mission and arrival of millennium was set as target date.
·
Drinking water mission in all the
villages, literacy mission by using television radio, immunization of pregnant
women and children(polio), white revolution, expanding edible oil production,
to bring telephone in every village
·
His computerization program was even
criticized by left.
·
Local self government was strengthen
·
Jawaharrozgaryojna for rural poor was
initiated(now MGNREGA)
·
New education policy-NAVODAYA VIDYALAYA
·
National perspective plan for women-30%
reservation in all panchayati raj bodies, dowry related offences was passed in
1986
·
First time environment project-clean the
river Ganga plan launched, new ministry of environment and environment
clearance was created.
·
Set up 7 zonal cultural centers in
different part of countries to encourage regional culture
·
Anti defection act 1985 was passed
·
Concept of lokadalat and consumer
protection act was started
·
Encouragement to programs critical to
government.
FOREIGN POLICY.
· Indira had formed 6 nation 5 continents
initiative, its first meeting was held in his time.
·
Disarmament issue was put on his agenda
like his ancestors
·
Supported De-colonialism (Namibia
independence), nelson Mandela movement
·
As US committed to support Pakistan to
promote Mujahidin against USSR, he did not tilt to it
·
He was after Nehru, visited china. India
even refrained from condemning Tiananmen square massacre of 1989
·
At the same time Bangladesh was moving
in Islamic direction, Nepal was imposing heavy duties on Indian imports and
discounts to Chinese import, Maldives was having coup, Pakistan was in same
tone.
·
SriLanka problem was major. As many
Tamils were fleeing to Tamilnadu. The government of SriLanka launched
repression in Jaffna, base of LITTE. TN government was pressuring on central to
take action against this.(Refugee having Tamil as language). Sri Lankan
president Jayavardhane-Rajiv accord 1987 was held according to which Tamils
majority areas were merged into single province in there. Devolution of power
would take place. LITTE would be dissolved and Indian army would aid srilanka
if she is needed but it was failed as LITTE did not accept it. In the mean
time Jayavardhane asked Indian army to help so situation became messy as LITTE
having local support and moreover just then Premadasa succeeded Jayavardhane
and asked Indian army to withdraw. Finally the LITTE issue caused Rajiv’s
death.
·
India negotiated with Vietnam to
withdrawal it from Cambodia.
·
He promote compact version of G77 as G15
·
Doubling of defence expenditure, guided
missile development program initiated by Mrs. Gandhi showed results, AGNI
PRATHVI NUCLEARED POWER SUBMARINE were come in picture
·
Bofors scandal caught his image that
caused him loose in election and V.P. Singh came in power.(But not for long
time, then charan singh,p.v. rao,h.d. devgaudaall came for short time.)
ATAL BIHARI BAJPAYEE
1998-2004.
CHALLENGES- communal
agenda pushed by VHP, RSS, bajrang dal, ayodhya issue Gujarat issue, THELKA
issue scandal , price hike
·
The largest coalition government 13
party was formed under Bajpayee leadership.
·
Communal agenda was put on back burner.
· Pokhran 2 test in 1998 though US and
CHINA much criticized it and banned nuclear supply to it even India did not
sign NPT and CTBT
· India developed its defence under super
guidance of Mr. Kalam as Pakistan was developing its long range missile ‘ghuri’
and US military base in Diageo Garcia in Hind Ocean and Chinese infiltration
was increasing.
·
India successfully won in kargil.
·
Kandahar incident was also held
· Agra summit and Lahore bus sewa program
for confidence building measures with Pakistan was also initiated in this phase
although not much succeeded
·
Indo-US nuclear deal was major mile.
·
India became partner in SAARC.
·
In LPG era FDI was also pushed in
retail.
·
Foreign policy with central Asia (Iraq
and Israel) became improved after look to east policy under which it opposed Dutch
colonialism in Indonesia.
·
But the decision of preelection could
not save NDA in election.
MANMOHAN SINGH 2004- 2014.
·
Congress came in power.
·
POTA was repealed. NAC was set up
·
Set up a new ministry of minority
affairs, a Sacher committee was formed to review minority section.
·
Introduced communal violence bill.
·
But a paradigm shift was to right based
bill and policies
·
RTI,NERGA, RTE etc were leap forward.
